THIRD EDITION RESEARCH DESIGN January 11, 2023 postadmin Post in Uncategorized ‘ ‘ THIRD EDITION RESEARCH DESIGN I dedicate this book to Karen Drumm Creswell. She is the inspiration for my writing and my life. Because of her, as wife, supporter, and detailed and careful editor, I am able to work long hours and keep the home fires burning during the years that I devote to my job and my books. Thank you from the bottom of my heart for being there for me. THIRD EDITION RESEARCH DESIGN Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches JOHN W. CRESWELL UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA-LINCOLN ~SAGE Los Angeles • London • New Delhi • Singapore Copyright© 2009 by SAGE Publications. Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilir.ed in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical. including photocopying, recording. or by any information storage and retrieval system, ‘Vithout permission in writing from the publisher. For information: SAGE Publications, Inc. 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 E-mail: [email protected] SAGE Publications Ltd. 1 Oliver’s Yard 55 City Road London EC1 Y 1SP United Kingdom Printed in the United States of America SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd. B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044 India SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte. Ltd. 33 Pekin Street #02-01 Far East Square Singapore 048763 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Creswell, John W Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches/John W Creswell. -3rd ed. p.cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4129-6556-9 (cloth) ISBN 978-1-4129-6557-6 (pbk.) 1. Social sciences-Research-Methodology. 2. Social sciences-Statistical methods. I. Title. H62.C6963 2009 300. 72-dc22 Printed on acid-free paper 08 09 10 11 12 10 9 8 7 Acquiring Editor: Vicki Knight Associate Editor: Sean Connelly Editorial Assistant: Lauren Habib Production Editor: Sarah K. Quesenberry Copy Editor: Marilyn Power Scott Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd. Proofreader: Marleis Roberts Indexer: Rick Hurd Cover Designer: Janet Foulger Marketing Manager: Stephanie Adams 2008006242 6 5 4 3 2 1 Brief Contents Analytic Contents of Research Techniques Preface Acknowledgments About the Author ~ Part 1: Preliminary Considerations 1. The Selection of a Research Design 2. Review of the Literature .3. The Use of Theory 4. Writing Strategies and Ethical Considerations ~~; Part II. Designing Research 5. The Introduction 6. The Purpose Statement 7. Research Questions and Hypotheses 8. Quantitative Methods 9. Qualitative Procedures 1 0. Mixed Methods Procedures Glossary References Author Index Subject Index XV xix xxvii xxix 3 23 49 73 95 97 111 129 145 173 203 227 237 247 251 Detailed Contents Analytic Contents ot Research Techniques Preface XV xix xix XIX XX xxii Purpose Audience Format Outline of Chapters Acknowledgments About the Author ~”!:i Part 1: Preliminary ConsideraHons xxvii xxix 1. The SelecHon of a Research Design 3 The Three Types of Designs 3 Three Components Involved in a Design 5 Philosophical Worldviews 5 The Postpositivist Worldview 6 The Social Constructivist Worldview 8 The Advocacy and Participatory Worldvlew 9 The Pragmatic Worldview 10 Strategies of Inquiry 11 Quantitative Strategies 12 Qualitative Strategies 12 Mixed Methods Strategies 14 Research Methods 15 Research Designs as Worldviews, Strategies. and Methods 16 Criteria for Selecting a Research Design 18 The Research Problem 18 Personal Experiences 19 Audience 19 Summary 20 Writing Exercises 20 Additional Readings 20 2. Review of the Literature 23 The Research Topic 23 The Literature Review 25 The Use of the Literature 26 Design Techniques 29 Steps in Conducting a Literature Review 29 Searching Computerized Databases 30 A Priority for Selecting Literature Material 32 A Literature Map of the Research 33 Abstracting Studies 36 • Example 2.1 Literature Review in a Quantitative Study 37 • Example 2.2 Literature Review in a Study Advancing a Typology 37 Style Manuals 38 The Definition ofTerms 39 • Example 2.3 Terms Defined in a Mixed Methods Dissertation 42 • Example 2.4 Terms Defined in an Independent Variables Section 43 A Quantitative or Mixed Methods Literature Review 43 ~mma~ e Writing Exercises 46 Additional Readings 46 3. The Use of Theory 49 Quantitative Theo~ Use 49 Variables in Quantitative Research 49 Definition of a Theory 51 Forms of Theories 53 Placement of Quantitative Theories 55 Writing a Quantitative Theoretical Perspective 57 • Example 3.1 A Quantitative Theory Section 59 Qualitative Theory Use 61 Variation in Theory Use in Qualitative Research 61 Locating the Theo~ in Qualitative Research 65 • Example 3.2 A Thea~ Early in a Qualitative Study 65 • Example 3.3 A Thea~ at the End of a Qualitative Study 65 Mixed Methods Theo~ Use 66 • Example 3.4 Theo~ in a Transformative-Emancipatory Mixed Methods Study 69 Summa~ 69 Writing Exercises 70 Additional Readings 71 4. Writing Strategies and Ethical Considerations Writing the Proposal Sections in a Proposal Format for a Qualitative Proposal • Example 4.1 A Qualitative Constructivist/ lnterpretivist Format • Example 4.2 A Qualitative Advocacy/ Participatory Format Format for a Quantitative Proposal • Example 4.3 A Quantitative Format Format for a Mixed Methods Proposal • Example 4.4 A Mixed Methods Format Designing the Sections of a Proposal Writing Ideas Writing as Thinking The Habit of Writing Readability of the Manuscript • Example 4.5 An Illustration of the 73 73 73 74 74 75 76 76 77 77 78 79 79 80 82 Hook-and-Eye Technique 84 Voice, Tense, and “Fat” 85 Ethical Issues to Anticipate 87 Ethical Issues in the Research Problem 88 Ethical Issues in the Purpose and Questions 88 Ethical Issues in Data Collection 89 Ethical Issues in Data Analysis and Interpretation 91 Ethical Issues in Writing and Disseminating the Research 92 Summary 93 Writing Exercises 93 Additional Readings 94 ~~ Part II: Designing Research 95 5. The Introduction 97 The Importance of Introductions 97 Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Introductions 98 A Model for an Introduction 1 00 An Illustration 1 00 The Research Problem 1 02 Studies Addressing the Problem 104 Deficiencies in Past Literature 1 06 • Example 5.1 Deficiencies in the Literature-Needed Studies 106 a Example 5.2 Deficiencies in the Literature-Few Studies 107 Significance of a Study tor Audiences 107 a Example 5.3 Significance of the Study Stated in an Introduction to a Quantitative Study 108 Summary 108 Writing Exercises 109 Additional Readings 109 6. The Purpose Statement Ill Significance and Meaning of a Purpose Statement Ill A Qualitative Purpose Statement 112 a Example 6.1 A Purpose Statement in a Qualitative Phenomenology Study 114 a Example 6.2 A Purpose Statement in a Case Study 115 • Example 6.3 A Purpose Statement in an Ethnography 115 • Example 6.4 A Purpose Statement in a Grounded Theory Study 116 A Quantitative Purpose Statement 116 a Example 6.5 A Purpose Statement in a Published Survey Study 118 • Example 6.6 A Purpose Statement in a Dissertation Survey Study 119 a Example6.7 A Purpose Statement in an Experimental Study 120 A Mixed Methods Purpose Statement 120 a Example 6.8 A Concurrent Mixed Methods Purpose Statement 123 • Example 6.9 A Sequential Mixed Methods Purpose Statement 124 • Example 6.1 0 A Transformative Concurrent Mixed Methods Purpose Statement 125 Summary 125 Writing Exercises 126 Additional Readings 126 7. Research Questions and Hypotheses 129 Qualitative Research Questions 129 a Example 7.1 A Qualitative Central Question From an Ethnography 131 • Example 7.2 Qualitative Central Questions From a Case Study 132 Quantitative Research Questions and Hypotheses 132 • Example 7.3 A Null Hypothesis 13~ • Example 7.~ Directional Hypotheses 13~ • Example 7.5 Nondirectional and Directional Hypotheses 135 • Example 7.6 Standard Use of Language in Hypotheses 136 A Model for Descriptive Questions and Hypotheses 136 • Example 7.7 Descriptive and Inferential Questions 136 Mixed Methods Research Questions and Hypotheses 138 • Example 7.8 Hypotheses and Research Questions in a Mixed Methods Study 139 • Example 7.9 A Mixed Methods Question Written in Terms of Mixing Procedures Summary Writing Exercises Additional Readings 8. Quantitative Methods Defining Surveys and Experiments Components of a Survey Method Plan The Survey Design The Population and Sample Instrumentation Variables in the Study Data Analysis and Interpretation • Example 8.1 A Survey Method Section Components of an Experimental Method Plan Participants Vanables Instrumentation and Materials Experimental Procedures • Example 8.2 Pre-Experimental Designs • Example 8.3 Quasi-Experimental Designs • Example 8.~ True Experimental Designs • Example 8.5 Single-Subject Designs Threats to Validity The Procedure Data Analysis Interpreting Results • Example 8.6 An Experimental Method Section 1~1 1~1 1~2 1~2 145 1~5 1~6 1~6 1~7 1~9 150 151 154 155 155 157 158 158 160 160 161 162 162 165 166 167 167 Summary 169 Writing Exercises 169 Additional Readings 1 70 9. Qualitative Procedures 173 The Characteristics of Qualitative Research 173 Strategies of Inquiry 176 The Researcher’s Role 1 77 Data Collection Procedures 178 Data Recording Procedures 181 Data Analysis and Interpretation 183 Reliability, Validity, and Generalizability 190 The Qualitative Write-Up 193 a Example 9.1 Qualitative Procedures 194 Summary 201 Writing Exercises 202 Additional Readings 202 10. Mixed Methods Procedures 203 Components of Mixed Methods Procedures 203 The Nature of Mixed Methods Research 204 Types of Mixed Methods Strategies and Visual Models 206 Planning Mixed Methods Procedures 206 Timing 206 Weighting 206 Mixing 207 Theorizing or Transforming Perspectives 208 Alternative Strategies and Visual Models 208 Sequential Explanatory Strategy 211 Sequential Exploratory Strategy 211 Sequential Transformative Strategy 212 Concurrent Triangulation Strategy 213 Concurrent Embedded Strategy 214 Concurrent Transformative Strategy 215 Choosing a Mixed Methods Strategy 216 Data Collection Procedures 217 Data Analysis and Validation Procedures 218 Report Presentation Structure 220 Examples of Mixed Methods Procedures 220 a Example 10.1 A Sequential Strategy of Inquiry 221 a Example 10.2 A Concurrent Strategy of Inquiry 221 a Example 1 0.3 A Transformative Strategy of Inquiry 223 Summary 224 Writing Exercises 224 Additional Readings 225 Glossary 227 References 237 Author Index 247 Subject Index 251 Analytic Contents of Research Techniques Chapter 1. The Selection of a Research Design e How to think about what design you should use e Identifying a worldview with which you are most comfortable • Defining the three types of research designs • How to choose which one of the three designs to use Chapter 2. Review of the Literature e How to assess whether your topic is researchable • The steps in conducting a literature review e Computerized databases available for reviewing the literature • Developing a priority for types of literature to review • How to design a literature map • How to write a good abstract of a research study • Important elements of a style manual to use • Types of terms to define e A model for writing a literature review Chapter 3. The Use of Theory e The types of variables in a quantitative study e A practical definition of a quantitative theory e A model for writing a theoretical perspective into a quantitative study using a script e Types of theories used in qualitative research XV xvi Research Design 0 Options for placing theories in a qualitative study o How to place a theoretical lens into a mixed methods stndy Chapter 4. Writing Strategies and Ethical Considerations 0 Assessing how the structure of a proposal would differ depending on a qualitative. quantitative, or mixed methods design 0 A writing strategy for drafting a proposal 0 Developing a habit of writing 0 Differences between umbrella thoughts. big thoughts. little thoughts, and attention thoughts in writing 0 The hook-and-eye technique for writing consistency 0 Principles of writing good prose 0 Ethics issues in the research process Chapter 5. The Introduction 0 Differences among quantitative. qualitative. and mixed methods introductions 0 The deficiency model for writing an introduction 0 How to design a good narrative hook 0 How to identify and write a research problem 0 How to summarize literature about a research problem 0 Distinguishing among different types of deficiencies in past literature 0 Considering groups that may profit from your stndy Chapter 6. The Purpose Statement 0 A script for writing a qualitative purpose statement o Considering how the script would change depending on your qualitative strategy of inquiry 0 A script for writing a quantitative purpose statement 0 Considering how the script would change depending on your quantitative strategy of inquiry f”‘r ruryrrc; vur flf:jf rr~ ur rI~II , they find, an interpretation shaped by the researcher’s own experiences and background. 3. The basic generation of meaning is always social, arising in and out of interaction with a human community. The process of qualitative research is largely inductive, with the inquirer generating meaning from the data collected in the field. The Advocacy and Participatory Worldview Another group of researchers holds to the philosophical assumptions of the advocacy/participatory approach. This position arose during the 19 80s and 1990s from individuals who felt that the postpostivist assumptions imposed structural laws and theories that did not fit marginalized individuals in our society or issues of social justice that needed to be addressed. This worldview is typically seen with qualitative research, but it can be a foundation for quantitative research as welL Historically, some of the advocacy/participatory (or emancipatory) writers have drawn on the works of Marx, Adorno, Marcuse, Habermas, and Freire (Neuman, 2000). Fay (1987), Heron and Reason (1997), and Kemrnis and Wilkinson (1998) are more recent writers to read for this perspective. In the main, these inquirers felt that the constructivist stance did not go far enough in advocating for an action agenda to help marginalized peoples. An advocacy/participatory worldview holds that research inquiry needs to be intertwined with politics and a political agenda. Thus, the research contains an action agenda for reform that may change the lives of the participants, the institutions in which individuals work or live, and the researcher’s life. Moreover, specific issues need to be addressed that speak to important social issues of the day, issues such as empowerment, inequality, oppression, domination, suppression, and alienation. The researcher often begins with one of these issues as the focal point of the study. This research also assumes that the inquirer will proceed collaboratively so as to not further marginalize the participants as a result of the inquiry. In this sense, the participants may help design questions, collect data, analyze information, or reap the rewards of the research. Advocacy research provides a voice for these participants, raising their consciousness or advancing an agenda for change to improve their Jives. It becomes a united voice for reform and change. This philosophical worldview focuses on the needs of groups and individuals in our society that may be marginalized or disenfranchised. Therefore, theoretical perspectives may be integrated with the philosophical assumptions that construct a picture of the issues being examined, the people to be studied, and the changes that are needed, such as feminist perspectives, racialized discourses, critical theory, q~r theory, and disability theory~theoreticallens to be discussed more in Chapter 3. 10 Preliminary Considerations Although these are diverse groups and my explanations here are generalizations, it is helpful to view the summary by Kemmis and Wilkinson ( 19 9 8) of key features of the advocacy or participatory forms of inquiry: 1. Participatory action is recursive or dialectical and focused on bringing about change in practices. Thus, at the end of advocacy/participatory studies, researchers advance an action agenda for change. 2. This form of inquiry is focused on helping individuals free themselves from constraints found in the media, in language, in work procedures, and in the relationships of power in educational settings. Advocacy/participatory studies often begin with an important issue or stance about the problems in society, such as the need for empowerment. 3. It is emancipatory in that it helps unshackle people from the constraints of irrational and unjust structures that limit self-development and self-determination. The advocacy /participatory studies aim to create a political debate and discussion so that change will occur. 4. It is practical and collaborative because it is inquiry completed with others rather than on or to others. In this spirit, advocacy/participatory authors engage the participants as active collaborators in their inquiries. The Pragmatic Worldview Another position about worldviews comes from the pragmatists. Pragmatism derives from the work of Peirce, James, Mead, and Dewey (Cherryholmes, 1992). Recent writers include Rorty (1990), Murphy (1990), Patton (1990), and Cherryholmes (1992). There are many forms of this philosophy, but for many, pragmatism as a worldview arises out of actions, situations, and consequences rather than antecedent conditions (as in postpositivism). There is a concern with applications-what worksand solutions to problems (Patton. 1990). Instead of focusing on methods, researchers emphasize the research problem and use all approaches available to understand the problem (see Rossman & Wilson, 1985). As a philosophical underpinning for mixed methods studies, Tashakkori and Teddlie (1998), Morgan (2007), and Patton (1990) convey its importance for focusing attention on the research problem in social science research and then using pluralistic approaches to derive knowledge about the problem. Using Cherryholmes (1992), Morgan (2007), and my own views, pragmatism provides a philosophical basis for research: 0 Pragmatism is not committed to any one system of philosophy and reality. This applies to mixed methods research in that inquirers draw liberally from both quantitative and qualitative assumptions when they engage in their research. The Selection of a Research Design 11 • Individual researchers have a freedom of choice. In this way. researchers are free to choose the methods. techniques. and procedures of research that best meet their needs and purposes. e Pragmatists do not see the world as an absolute unity. In a similar way. mixed methods researchers look to many approaches for collecting and analyzing data rather than subscribing to only one way (e.g .. quantitative or qualitative). e Truth is what works at the time. It is not based in a duality between reality independent of the mind or within the mind. Thus. in mixed methods research. investigators use both quantitative and qualitative data because they work to provide the best understanding of a research problem. e The pragmatist researchers look to the what and how to research. based on the intended consequences-where they want to go with it. Mixed methods researchers need to establish a purpose for their mixing, a rationale for the reasons why quantitative and qualitative data need to be mixed in the first place. e Pragmatists agree that research always occurs in social. historical. political. and other contexts. In this way. mixed methods studies may include a postmodern turn. a theoretical lens that is reflective of social justice and political aims. e Pragmatists have believed in an external world independent of the mind as well as that lodged in the mind. But they believe that we need to stop asking questions about reality and the laws of nature (Cherryholmes. 1992). “They would simply like to change the subject” (Rorty, 1983. p. xiv). e Thus. for the mixed methods researcher. pragmatism opens the door to multiple methods. different worldviews, and different assumptions. as well as different forms of data collection and analysis. Strategies of Inquiry The researcher not only selects a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods study to conduct, the inquirer also decides on a type of study within these three choices. Strategies of inquiry are types of qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods designs or models that provide specific direction for procedures in a research design. Others have called them approaches to inquiry (Creswell, 2007) or research methodologies (Mertens, 1998). The strategies available to the researcher have grown over the years as computer technology has pushed forward our data analysis and ability to analyze complex models and as individuals have articulated new procedures for conducting social science research. Select types will be emphasized in Chapters 8, 9, and 10, strategies frequently used in the social sciences. Here I introduce those that are discussed later and that are cited in examples throughout the book. An overview of these strategies is shown in Table 1.2. 12 Preliminary Considerations :;’!l:f”‘ ‘< -‘=”” “‘=”” –,.,,..;;=”” “”””~”””‘~”‘=”” ~=”” ~=”” ~-=”” “”=””>'””””‘fd<>”i”””~,””l”•~-..c”””‘,”llll~l;”;~~~-‘” .,.-4″””‘>~~ ~’*'””’r””1W”’7’1″”‘~ Table 1.2 Alternative Strateg1es of Inquiry Quantitative Qualitative Mixed Methods • • Experimental designs • Narrative research • Sequential Non-experimental • Phenomenology • Concurrent designs, such as • Ethnographies • Tronsformative SUNeys • Grounded theory studies • Case study Quantitative Strategies During the late 19th and throughout the 20th century, strategies of inquiry associated with quantitative research were those that invoked the postpositivist worldview. These include true experiments aud the less rigorous experiments called quasi-experiments and correlational studies (Campbell & Stanley, 1963) and specific single-subject experiments (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 1987; Neuman & McCormick, 1995). More recently; quantitative strategies have involved complex experiments with many variables and treatments (e.g .. factorial designs and repeated measure designs). They have also included elaborate structural equation models that incorporate causal paths and the identification of the collective strength of multiple variables. In this book, I focus on two strategies of inquiry: surveys aud experiments. 0 Survey research provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population. It includes cross-sectional and longitudinal studies using questionnaires or structured interviews for data collection, with the intent of generalizing from a sample to a population (Babbie, 1990). 0 Experimental research seeks to determine if a specific treatment influences an outcome. This impact is assessed by providing a specific treatment to one group and withholding it from another and then determining how both groups scored on an outcome. Experiments include true experiments, with the random assignment of subjects to treatment conditions, and quasi-experiments that use nonrandomized designs (Keppel. 1991). Included within quasi-experiments are single-subject designs. Qualitative Strategies In qualitative research, the numbers and types of approaches have also become more clearly visible during the 1990s and into the 21st century. Books have summarized the various types (such as the 19 strategies identified by Wolcott, 2001), and complete procedures are now available on specific qualitative inquiry approaches. For example, Clandinin and Connelly (2000) constructed a picture of what narrative researchers do. Moustakas (l 994) discussed the philosophical tenets and the procedures of the phenomenological method. and Stmuss and Corbin (1990. 1998) identified the procedures of grounded theory. Wolcott 11999) summarized ethnographic procedures. and Stake (] 99 5) suggested processes involved in case study research. In this book, illustrations are dnnvn from the follmving strategies, recognizing that approaches such as participatory action research (Kemmis & Wilkinson. ] 998). discourse analysis (Cheek. 2004), and others not mentioned (sec Creswell, 2007b) are also viable ways to conduct qualitative studies: • Ethnography is a strategy of inquiry in vhich the researcher studies an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of time by collecting. primarily. observational and intervic1’ dt1la (Crcsvell. 2007b). The research process is llexiblc and typically evolves contextually in response to the lived realities encountered in I he field selling (LeCompte & Schensul. 1’199). • Grounded f·heory is a strategy of inquiry in Vhich the researcher derives a general. abstract theory of a process. action. or interaction grounded in the views of participants. This process involves using multiple stages of data collection and the refinement and interrelationship or categories of information (Channaz, 2006: Strauss and Corbin. 1990. 1998). Two primary characteristics of this design arc the constant comparison of data with emerging categories and theoretical sampling of different groups to maximize the similarities and the differences of information. • Case studies are a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher explores in depth a progran1. event. acl ivity. process. or one or more individuals. Cases are bounded by time and activity. and researchers collect detailed information using a variety of data collection procedures over a sustained period of time (Slake, l 99 S ). • Phcnotnenological research is a strategy of inquiry in •vhich the researcher identifies the essence of human experiences ahout a phenomenon as described by participants. Understanding the lived experiences marks phenomenology as a philosophy as well as a method, and the procedure involves studying a small number of subjects through extensive and prolonged engagement lo develop patterns and relationships of meaning (Moustakas, J 994). In this process, the researcher brackets or sets aside his or her ovln experiences in order to understand those of the participants in the study (Nieswiadomy. 1993). • Narratil’e research is a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher studies the lives of individuals and asks one or more individuals lo provide stories about their lives. This information is then often retold or restoricd by the researcher into a narrative chronology. ln the end, the narrative combines vleVS from the participant’s life with those of the researcher’s life in a collaborative narrative (Ciandinin & Connelly. 2000). 14 Preliminary Considerations Mixed Methods Strategies Mixed methods strategies are less well known than either the quantitative or qualitative approaches. The concept of mixing different methods originated in 19 59 when Campbell and Fisk used multimethods to study validity of psychological traits. They encouraged others to employ their multimethod matrix to examine multiple approaches to data collection. This prompted others to mix methods, and soon approaches associated with field methods, such as observations and interviews (qualitative data), were combined with traditional surveys (quantitative data; Sieber, 1973). Recognizing that all methods have limitations, researchers felt that biases inherent in any single method could neutralize or cancel the biases of other methods. Triangulating data sources-a means for seeking convergence across qualitative and quantitative methods-was born (Jick, 1979). By the early 1990s, the idea of mixing moved from seeking convergence to actually integrating or connecting the quantitative and qualitative data. For example, the results from one method can help identify participants to study or questions to ask for the other method (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998). Alternatively, the qualitative and quantitative data can be merged into one large database or the results used side by side to reinforce each other (e.g., qualitative quotes support statistical results; Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007). Or the methods can serve a larger, transformative purpose to advocate for marginalized groups, such as women, ethnic/racial minorities, members of gay and lesbian communities, people with disabilities, and those who are poor (Mertens, 2003). These reasons for mixing methods have led writers from around the world to develop procedures for mixed methods strategies of inquiry, and these take the numerous terms found in the literature, such as multimethod, convergence, integrated, and combined (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007), and shape procedures for research (Tashak:kori & Teddlie, 2003). In particular, three general strategies and several variations within them are illustrated in this book: 0 Sequential mixed methods procedures are those in which the researcher seeks to elaborate on or expand on the findings of one method with another method. This may involve beginning with a qualitative interview for exploratory purposes and following up with a quantitative, survey method with a large sample so that the researcher can generalize results to a population. Alternatively, the study may begin with a quantitative method in which a theory or concept is tested, followed by a qualitative method involving detailed exploration with a few cases or individuals. 0 Concurrent mixed methods procedures are those in which the researcher converges or merges quantitative and qualitative data in order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research problem. In this design, the investigator collects both forms of data at the same time and then integrates The Selection of a Research Design 15 the information in the interpretation of the overall results. Also, in this design, the researcher may embed one smaller form of data “~thin another larger data collection in order to analyze different types of questions (the qualitative addresses the process while the quantitative. the outcomes). e Transformative mixed methods procedures are those in which the researcher uses a theoretical lens (see Chapter 3) as an overarching perspective within a design that contains both quantitative and qualitative data. This lens provides a framework for topics of interest, methods for collecting data, and outcomes or changes anticipated by the study. Within this lens could be a data collection method that involves a sequential or a concurrent approach. Research Methods The third major element in the framework is the specific research methods that involve the forms of data collection, analysis, and interpretation that researchers propose for their studies. As shown in Table 1.3, it is useful to consider the full range of possibilities of data collection and to organize these methods, for example, by their degree of predetermined nature, their use of closed-ended versus open-ended questioning, and their focus on numeric versus nonnumeric data analysis. These methods will be developed further in Chapters 8 throngh 10. Researchers collect data on an instrument or test (e.g .. a set of questions about attitudes toward self-esteem) or gather information on a behavioral checklist (e.g .. observation of a worker engaged in a complex skill). On the other end of the continuum. collecting data might involve visiting a research site and observing the behavior of individuals without predetermined questions or conducting an interview in which the individual is allowed to talk openly about a topic, largely without the use of specific Table 1.3 Quantitative, M1xed. and Qualitative Methods Quantitative Methods – Mixed Methods – Qualitative Methods • Pre-determined • Both pre-determined • Emerging methods • Instrument based and emerging methods • Open-ended questions questions • Both open- and • Interview data. • Performance data . closed-ended questions observation data. attitude data, • Multiple forms of data document data, and observational data. drawing on all audio-visual data and census data possibilities • Text and image • Statistical analysis • Statistical and analysis • Staffstical interpretation text analysis • Themes. patterns • Across databases interpretation Interpretation 16 Preliminary Considerations questions. The choice of methods turns on whether the intent is to specify the type of information to be collected in advance of the study or allow it to emerge from participants in the project. Also, the type of data analyzed may be numeric information gathered on scales of instruments or text information recording and reporting the voice of the participants. Researchers make interpretations of the statistical results, or they interpret the themes or patterns that emerge from the data. In some forms of research, both quantitative and qualitative data are collected, analyzed, and interpreted. Instrument data may be augmented with open-ended observations, or census data may be followed by in-depth exploratory interviews. In this case of mixing methods, the researcher makes inferences across both the quantitative and qualitative databases. RESEARCH DESIGNS AS WORLDVIEWS, STRATEGIES, AND METHODS The worldviews, the strategies, and the methods all contribute to a research design that tends to be quantitative, qualitative, or mixed. Table 1.4 creates distinctions that may be useful in choosing an approach. This table also includes practices of all three approaches that are emphasized in remaining chapters of this book. Typical scenarios of research can illustrate how these three elements combine into a research design. o Quantitative approach~Postpositivist worldview, experimental strategy of inquiry, and pre- and post-test measures of attitudes In this scenario, the researcher tests a theory by specifying narrow hypotheses and the collection of data to support or refute the hypotheses. An experimental design is used in which attitudes are assessed both before and after an experimental treatment. The data are collected on an instrument that measures attitudes, and the information is analyzed using statistical procedures and hypothesis testing. 0 Qualitative approach~Constructivist worldview, ethnographic design, and observation of behavior In this situation, the researcher seeks to establish the meaning of a phenomenon from the views of participants. This means identifying a culturesharing group and studying how it develops shared patterns of behavior over time (i.e., ethnography). One of the key elements of collecting data in this way is to observe participants’ behaviors by engaging in their activities. 0 Qualitative approach~Participatory worldview, narrative design, and open-ended interviewing For this study, the inquirer seeks to examine an issue related to oppression of individuals. To study this, stories are collected of individual oppression 1110” UV1V…..11V11 V1 U 1’V..:JVU1′-..-11 L…IV..:J1::;:11 I 1 # ~ ~~4·•·•£ml3§J,ftEil@r;tlW•’i’•rQ’Jrea Tend to or Qualitative Quantitative Mixed Methods Typically … Approaches Approaches Approaches • Use these • Constructivist I • Post~positivist • Pragmatic philosophical advocacy/ knowledge knowledge assumptions participatory claims claims knowledge claims • Employ these • Phenomenology, • Surveys and • Sequential, strategies of grounded theory. experiments concurrent, and inquiry ethnography, transformative case study, and narrative • Employ these • Open-ended • Closed-ended • Both open- and methods questions, questions, closed-ended emerging predetermined questions. both approaches, text approaches, emerging and or image data numeric data predetermined approaches. and both quantitative and qualitative data and analysis • Use these • Positions him- or • Tests or verifies • Collects both practices of herself theories or quantitative research as the • Collects explanations and qualitative researcher participant • Identifies data meanings variables to • Develops a • Focuses on a study rationale for single concept or • Relates mixing phenomenon variables in • Integrates the • Brings personal questions or data at different values into the hypotheses stages of inquiry study • Uses standards • Presents visual • Studies the of validity and pictures of the context or setting reliability procedures in of participants • Observes and the study • Validates the measures • Employs the accuracy of information practices of findings numerically both qualitative • Makes • Uses unbiased and interpretations of approaches quantitative the data • Employs research • Creates an statistical agenda for procedures change or reform • Collaborates with the participants 18 Preliminary Considerations using a narrative approach. Individuals are interviewed at some length to determine how they have personally experienced oppression. e Mixed methods approach-Pragmatic worldview. collection of both quantitative and qualitative data sequentially The researcher bases the inquiry on the assumption that collecting diverse types of data best provides an understanding of a research problem. The study begins with a broad survey in order to generalize results to a population and then. in a second phase, focuses on qualitative, openended interviews to collect detailed views from participants. CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A RESEARCH DESIGN Given the possibility of qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods approaches, what factors affect a choice of one approach over another for the design of a proposal? Added to worldview, strategy, and methods would be the research problem, the personal experiences of the researcher, and the audience(s) for whom the report will be written. The Research Problem A research problem, more thoroughly discussed in Chapter 5, is an issue or concern that needs to be addressed (e.g., the issue of racial discrimination). Certain types of social research problems call for specific approaches. For example, if the problem calls for (a) the identification of factors that influence an outcome, (b) the utility of an intervention, or (c) understanding the best predictors of outcomes, then a quantitative approach is best. It is also the best approach to use to test a theory or explanation. On the other hand, if a concept or phenomenon needs to be understood because little research has been done on it, then it merits a qualitative approach. Qualitative research is exploratory and is useful when the researcher does not know the important variables to examine. This type of approach may be needed because the topic is new, the topic has never been addressed with a certain sample or group of people, and existing theories do not apply with the particular sample or group under study (Morse, 1991). A mixed methods design is useful when either the quantitative or qualitative approach by itself is inadequate to best understand a research problem or the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative research can provide the best understanding. For example, a researcher may want to both generalize the findings to a population as well as develop a detailed view of the meaning of a phenomenon or concept for individuals. In this research, the inquirer first explores generally to learn what variables to study and then studies those variables with a large sample of individuals. The Selection of a Research Design 19 Alternatively, researchers may first survey a large number of individuals and then follow up with a few participants to obtain their specific language and voices about the topic. In these situations, collecting both closed-ended quantitative data and open-ended qualitative data proves advantageous. Personal Experiences Researchers’ own personal training and experiences also influence their choice of approach. An individual trained in technical, scientific writing, statistics. and computer statistical programs and familiar with quantitative journals in the library would most likely choose the quantitative design. On the other hand. individuals who enjoy writing in a literary way or conducting personal interviews or making up-close observations may gravitate to the qualitative approach. The mixed methods researcher is an individual familiar with both quantitative and qualitative research. This person also has the time and resources to collect both quantitative and qualitative data and has outlets for mixed methods studies. which tend to be large in scope. Since quantitative studies are the traditional mode of research, carefully worked out procedures and rules exist for them. Researchers may be more comfortable with the highly systematic procedures of quantitative research. Also, for some individuals, it can be uncomfortable to challenge accepted approaches among some faculty by using qualitative and advocacy/ participatory approaches to inquiry. On the other hand, qualitative approaches allow room to be innovative and to work more within researcher-designed frameworks. They allow more creative, literary-style writing. a form that individuals may like to use. For advocacy /participatory writers, there is undoubtedly a strong stimulus to pursue topics that are of personal interest-issues that relate to marginalized people and an interest in creating a better society for them and everyone. For the mixed methods researcher, the project will take extra time because of the need to collect and analyze both quantitative and qualitative data. It fits a person who enjoys both the structure of quantitative research and the flexibility of qualitative inquiry. Audience Finally, researchers write for audiences that will accept their research. These audiences may be journal editors. journal readers, graduate committees, conference attendees, or colleagues in the field. Students should consider the approaches typically supported and used by their advisers. The experiences of these audiences with quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods studies can shape the decision made about this choice. 20 Preliminary Considerations SUMMARY In planning a research project, researchers need to identify whether they will employ a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods design. This design is based on bringing together a worldview or assumptions about research, the specific strategies of inquiry, and research methods. Decisions about choice of a design are further influenced by the research problem or issue being studied, the personal experiences of the researcher, and the audience for whom the researcher writes. 1. Identify a research question in a journal article and discuss what design would be best to study the question and why. 2. Take a topic that you would like to study, and using the four combinations of worldviews, strategies of inquiry, and research methods in Figure 1.1, discuss a project that brings together a worldview, strategies, and methods. Identify whether this would be quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods research. 3. What distinguishes a quantitative study from a qualitative study? Mention three characteristics. ADDITIONAL READINGS Cherryholmes, C. H. (1.992, August-September). Notes on pragmatism and scientific realism. Educational Researcher, 14, 13-17. Cleo Cherryholmes discusses pragmatism as a contrasting perspective from scientific realism. The strength of this article lies in the numerous citations of writers about pragmatism and a clarification of one version of pragmatism. Cherryholmes’s version points out that pragmatism is driven by anticipated consequences, reluctance to tell a true story, and the embrace of the idea that there is an external world independent of our minds. Also included in this article are numerous references to historical and recent writers about pragmatism as a philosophical position. Crotty, M. (1998). The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the research process. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Michael Crotty offers a useful framework for tying together the many epistemological issues, theoretical perspectives, methodology, and methods of social research. He interrelates the four components of the research process and shows in a table a representative sampling of topics of each component. He then goes on to discuss nine different theoretical orientations in social research, such as postmodernism, feminism, critical inquiry, interpretivism, constructionism, and positivism. 1110:::;’ 00:::;’10;::;’1….-IIUII Ul U 1″